Vygotsky and Piaget Pedagogy Essays

Vygotsky and Piaget Pedagogy Essays Vygotsky and Piaget Pedagogy Essay Vygotsky and Piaget Pedagogy Essay Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and Len Vygotsky’s sociocultural perspective have played critical roles in educational psychology. Both of these major frameworks will be analyzed and compared. From these two different standpoints, it will be illustated how a particular concept or cognitive skill can be taught. Russian psychologist Len Semenovich Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a fundamental figure in the exploration of â€Å"the sociocultural theory. † His ideas played crucial roles in the pedagogical framework of children and education. Thoroughly, he examined the sociocultural theory which emphasizes the role in development of cooperative dialogues between children and more knowledgeable members of society. Children learn their culture (ways of thinking and behaving) through these interactions (Berk Winsler 19). Vygotsky believed that our mental structures and processes can be traced back to our interactions with others (Berk Winsler 12-15). Social interactions not only have an influence on our cognitive development, they actually create our cognitive structures and thinking process (Woolfolk 39). During shared activities between the child and another person, higher mental processes are first co-constructed. This is a social process in which people interact and negotiate (usually verbally) to create an understanding or solve a problem (Woolfolk 39). The processes are then internalized by the child and become part of the child’s cognitive development. The final product is shaped by all participants (Berk Winsler 15). For example (Tharp Gallimore 14): A six-year-old has lost a toy and asks her father for help. The father asks her where she last saw the toy; the child says â€Å"I can’t remember. He asks a series of questions- did you have it in your room? Outside? Next door? To each question, the child answers, â€Å"no. † When he says â€Å"in the car? † She says â€Å"I think so† and goes to retrieve the toy. Vygotsky once stated that â€Å"ever function in a child’s development appears twice: first on the social level and then lat er on the individual level; first between people ‘interpsychological’ and then inside the child ‘intrapsychological’ (Berk Winsler 12. )† For instance, the strategy for finding the toy was initially co-constructed by both- the child and the adult. The next time that child loses a toy it is probable that he/she may have internalized a strategy on how to find the toy (by recalling all the previous places that the toy was last seen). This adult guidance provides early support while students build the understanding necessary to solve problems (Woolfolk 59). Eventually the child will be capable of functioning independently in the process of problem solving. In this scenario, perhaps the child may be capable of finding the toy with no help the next time this problem arises. Vygotsky emphasized the importance of cultural tools, which enables the transfer of cognition from the social to the individual plane (Berk Winsler 21). Cultural tools include material tools such as: computers, scales Internet, rulers, ect. On the other hand, psychological tools include: symbol systems, numbers, language, graphs, maps, codes, languages, ect. These tools allow people in society to communicate, think, solve problems, and create knowledge (Woolfolk 41). These tools are used in daily activities by the child in formal and informal settings, with the help from an adult. An example of using a psychological tool to aid in the advancement of development would be the construction of a map. In this scenario, collaboration would occur between the child and the teacher on how to represent the concepts of people and spaces. In return, these co-constructed ideas are internalized within the child and development occurs. â€Å"Learning leads development (Wood 101). † These tools are fundamental in development because they support thinking, which results in the construction of the child’s understanding of the social and physical world (Berk Winsler 23). Vygotsky emphasized the tool of language as a critical factor in development. Initially, speech serves as a regulative communication function (Wood 29). In time, children develop language as the build on other cognitive abilities by trying to make sense in what they hear. Self talk guides the child’s cognitive thinking. This external tool slows down the thought process, allowing concepts, thoughts, or ideas to be more comprehensible- resulting in problem solving. It transforms the way children, learn, think, and understand (Wood 29). Vygotsky believed that thinking is radically transformed when children become capable of linguistic communication. â€Å"At the least, sounds, meanings, words and sequence of words, volume, voice tone, inflection, and turn-taking rule must all be coordinated before a child can communicate effectively in conversation (Woolfield 51). † Because a child’s self-directed talk aids in the thinking and problem solving process, it helps develops child’s self regulation. (Berk Winsler106-108) This is the process of activating and sustaining thoughts, behaviors, and emotions in order to reach goals (Woolfield 621). An example would be the â€Å"taking turn rule,† during a conversation. The child must sustain the behavior of talking while another person is talking in order to have a successful conversation. On the other hand, Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980) developed the theory of cognitive development, which is based on the assumption that people try to make sense of the world and actively create knowledge through direct experience with objects, people, and ideas (Wood 22). Unlike Vygotsky, Piaget believed that the individual construct their own understanding of the work. The child’s development first occurs on the individual level then on the social level. Because we are constantly trying to make sense of the world in which we live, our thinking process change drastically from birth until maturity. Piaget thought that a major influence on the way we perceive and make sense of the world, is through the process of maturation, which is the genetically programmed, naturally occurring changes over time (Wood 21). More specifically, Piaget believed that young people go through four stages as they develop: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete-operational, and formal operational (Woolfield 57). Conversely, Vygotsky did not believe there was a set stage for development. In the first stage through the exploration of motor activity, infants in the sesorimotor stage (approximately between the ages of 0-2 years) gradually work towards mastering object permanence as well as performing goal-directed activities. Object permanence is â€Å"the understanding that objects exist in an environment whether they perceive them or not (Woolfolk 30. )† For instance, if you take a certain toy away from away from a young infant, they will not acknowledge that that toy exists. Out of sight, out of mind (Woolfolk. )† On the other hand, if an older child sees a package of enticing cookies laying on the table and starts crying for one, even if the adult moves the cookies in the cabinet (clearly out of sight from the child) the child will still know that even though he physically cannot see the cookies- they still exist. The child will begin to make use of imitation, memory, and though t. An example of imitation would be a baby copying the gestures of â€Å"peek-a-boo† with an adult. The preoperational stage occurs between 2-7 years of age. Symbolic thinking gradually begins to develops. For instance, if there is not a toy phone, a child may pick up a block and pretend that that is the phone. During this stage, the child may have a difficult time seeing another person’s point of view. Their concept of space â€Å"is subjective and centered on their own body (Wood 67). † For example, during an experiment, three mountains were placed together. The children were supplied with pictures on how the mountains would look from different positions when observing. They then were asked how another person would view the model from different positions. In most cases, children in this stage are most likely to choose the mountain from the position in which they view the mountain (Wood 67). The concrete-operational stage occurs during the age of 7-11 years (Woolfield 32). The child achieves the principle of conservation during this time. A 5 year old is shown two identical glasses that are wide and short. Both are holding the same exact amount of water, and the child agrees with that notion. The experimenter then pours one of the cups of water into a taller, narrower glass. When the child is asked which glass has more water the second time around, the child declares the taller glass does, â€Å"because it goes up higher (Wood). † Piget believes the child at the concrete-operational stage would have the ability to acknowledge the difference. Also, the child at this stage developes reversible thinking, which is the ability to think from the end to the beginning (Woolfield 31). The last stage is the formal operation stage that occurs from 11 years of age to adulthood. Piaget believed that an individual during this time could become more scientific in thinking, had the ability to solve problems in a logical fashion, and developes concerns regarding social issues and identity (Woolfield 30). Piaget’s theory places action and self-directed problem solving at the heart of learning and development. Learning and development are separate entites. By acting on the world, the learner comes to discover how to control it. Development must be constructed on the basis of knowledge. On the opposite side of the spectrum, Vygotsky believe that they learning and behavior are not separate entities because learning leads development. * * * Piaget puts less emphasis on social experiences and inter-personal behavior as an crucial part of development opposed to Vygotsky. Piaget believed that since the individual construct their own understanding of the work, the child’s development first occurs on the individual level then on the social level. He believed that social facilitation may aid in development because the child is exposed to other points of views, which in return may cause him/her to re-think his individual ideas (Wood 17). However, social facilitation will only be benefital to the child if they are at the â€Å"appropriate state of readiness for change (Wood 17). † (The state of readiness is theâ€Å"stage of development† that was discussed in the previous section. ) Most likely Piaget would not pair two student together to work collaboratively if they were on different levels of development. On the contrary, Vygotsky would most likely pair two students together of different levels so that the students could co-constuct eachothers learning. In my classroom, I would adovate students of different abilities to work together. Both students would benefit in the exchange explanations and questions that each has to offer. In both perspectives, the role of the teacher is to facilitate and guide the students. Both psychologist placed a different emphasis on the importance of instruction. Vygotsky placed instruction in the heart of learning. Instruction is a mayor contribution to children’s growing consiousness and regulation of their own thought processm it prompts a shift to a higher level of cognitive activity (Berk Winsler 106). † The teacher would partake in guided participation, such as walking the students through a complicated problem. For example, if a student was still hesitant on how to solve a math problem, they may do part of the problem and remind the st udent of the proper steps to take to solve it. The teacher should allow revision from the student, offer the student feedback and ask questions. For example, if the students finishs a long division math problem- ask the student to explain what the remainder is. Vygotsky would also encourage a â€Å"think out loud† to assist in learning. For example, if I were teaching a class reading comprehension: first I would read a book aloud, then I would read the same book again only this time modeling my thought process out loud. I would elaborate on the connections I made to the text and to myself. This would demonstrate to the students the revisions and choices a learner undergoes. To scaffold learning in a classroom there are many different approaches such as clues, reminders, encouragements, and breaking down problems into steps and providing examples (Woolfield 49). On the other hand, Piaget believed that instruction can refine and improve structures that have already emerged, but it cannot lead to the development of concepts as Vygotsky believed (Berk Winsler 108). In this case, I would introduce a topic to a group of students together, then I would have them work on follow up activitites to match their learning needs. When devising lesson plans, the teacher would have to be conscious of restructing prior knowledge. To accomplish this, the teacher’s role would be to make connections to what the students already know. For instance, if I were to teach a lesson on the holocaust, if I had previously read â€Å"Number the Stars† by Louis Lowry (a journal of a girl hidden in a attic durning the holocaust), I would first discuss the book before introducing new ideas. In conclusion, Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and Len Vygotsky’s sociocultural perspective have played critical roles in educational psychology. Their framework has provided us with insightful theories regarding learning and development and ways particular concepts or cognitives skill can be taught from these standpoints. Berk, Laura Winsler, Adam(1995). Scaffolding Children’s Learning: Vygotsky and Early Childhood Education. Tharp, R. G. , Gallimore, R. (1988). Rousing minds to life: Teaching, learning, and schooling in social context. New York: Cambridge University Press. Pg 14. Wood, David. (1988). How Children Learn and Think: Second Edition. Blackwell Publishing. Woolfolk, Anita. (2007). Educational Psychology: Tenth Edition. Pearson Education. Boston.

Hamlet Essays - Characters In Hamlet, Prince Hamlet, King Claudius

Hamlet Essays - Characters In Hamlet, Prince Hamlet, King Claudius Hamlet In the first three acts of the play Hamlet, King Claudius go through a subtle, but defined change in character. Claudius role in the play begins as the newly corrinated king of Denmark. The former king, King Hamlet, was poisoned by his brother, Claudius, while he was asleep. Claudius, however, made it known to everyone that the king died of a snakebite in the garden, and thus no one knew of the murder that had just taken place making his murder the perfect crime. The only problem that Claudius must deal with now is his conscience. After Claudius commits the deed of killing King Hamlet, he almost immediately marries Hamlet's wife, Queen Gertrude. Claudius also gains a new son, his former nephew Hamlet, the son of King Hamlet. Young Hamlet is very displeased with his mother's hasty marriage of Claudius and is angered by this incest. Hamlet has a deep attraction for his mother which goes beyond the traditional, mother-son relationship. At this point in the play, Hamlet does not know that Claudius has murdered his father, but he dislikes him anyway. Claudius is not a bad king, which is demonstrated by his handling of the situation between Young Fortinbras and Denmark, but he is not extremely popular with the people and has brought back the obnoxious custom of firing the cannons whenever the king takes a drink. Claudius' conscience, here is non-existent. After the ghost of the dead King Hamlet tells Hamlet to avenge his murder, Hamlet has a reason to truly hate Claudius. From this point on in the play, there is definitely friction between the two. When Claudius offers Hamlet the throne after he dies, Hamlet acts apathetic as if the rule of Denmark was, but a mere trifle. Hamlet enters a deep depression which the king and others, see as madness. First they think that Hamlet is lovesick over Polonius' daughter, Ophelia, but after the king spies on Hamlet and Ophelia in conversation, he comes to the conclusion that Hamlet is mad, a threat to his rule, and must be sent to England to be executed. This is a sign of the king's uneasiness over the mettle of Hamlet's anger which is directed towards him. The last thing that Claudius wants is for Hamlet to be unhappy with him, in fear that Hamlet will overthrow him, discover the murder, or possibly kill him. The king becomes increasingly nervous as time passes, making him a bit paranoid over Hamlet. By the beginning of Act III, Hamlet is almost ready to kill Claudius, but he still needs more proof that Claudius killed his father, and he also wants to put off the murder because he is a bit of a coward. Claudius is beginning to lose his composure. Hamlet decides to set a trap for him in the form of a play. The subject of the play is the murder of a king by his brother who, in turn, marries the king's wife. The plot of the play is strikingly similar to the circumstances of King Hamlet's murder, which strikes a disharmonious chord in the conscience of Claudius. In the middle of the play during the murder scene, Claudius gets up and begs for the play to stop so that he can get some air. Hamlet is very angered by this because it confirms that Claudius did kill his father. Later that night, Claudius prays to god to forgive him for his sins, but he is not ready to give up his new crown and his new wife. Guilt has begun to cloud over Claudius' thoughts, and it will indeed drive him to the brink of insanity and beyond. Hamlet spies Claudius, praying with his back turned and on his knees, but he passes up the opportunity to kill the monarch with the excuse of not wanting to accidentally send Claudius to Heaven. The development of Claudius' guilt is a gradual transformation. This metamorphosis will come to a head later in the play. The guilt though, has already begun to affect the actions of Claudius in his everyday life, by transforming a normal night out to the theater into a devastating insight into his own life. Hamlet, although he

World History from 1800 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

World History from 1800 - Essay Example As a result, the Indian public was seeking to oust the British from the country as early as possible. 2. At the time, the Indian National Congress, though still restricted to the elites of society, had already achieved widespread success and popularity as a forum for voicing dissent against the British government. 3. It was also in the same year that the â€Å"Surat Split† took place. The Surat Split i.e. the official rift between the Moderates and the Radicals was a culmination of a long history of differences in ideologies. The Moderates, who believed that the British government essentially worked for the welfare of the Indians, preferred Constitutional methods or passive resistance to show their disapproval. The Radicals or Extremists, on the other hand, wanted the British government to leave immediately and hand over the governing of the nation to the Indians. They practised what is now termed as militant nationalism. Differences in opinions and clashes finally led to the official breaking up of the Congress in 1907, into two distinct groups. 4. In 1906, the Liberal Party of Britain came to power. This gave a major impetus to the Indian National Movements, as the Liberals were sympathetic to the grievances of the Indians. They introduced major reforms, such as the â€Å"Morley-Minto Reforms† which encouraged nationalist leaders of that time. The speech reflects the popular sentiments of the Indians at the time. The term â€Å"alien government† clearly spells out that the British reign in India was now considered as something foreign and unwanted, as opposed to the previous notion of the â€Å"benign British influence.† The invaders who had come to India before, such as the Aryans or the Mughals, established their empires which were largely marked by prosperity and peace. There were huge developments in Trade

Critically examining Stephen Harpers series of reforms his Essay

Critically examining Stephen Harpers series of reforms his conservative federal government has introduced to the appointment processes for Section 96 and Supreme Court judges - Essay Example Among the promising aspects that gave Stephen Harper’s conservative party an edge over their rivals refers to the democratic appointment processes for section 96 and Supreme Court judges1. The researcher therefore examines to what extent the conservative government have effected these changes. Consequently, the paper cross-examines the most significant change and a judgement provided regarding beneficial aspects of those reforms. The judiciary in Canada holds the role of serving as an impartial arbiter. There stands a legal requirement for the judicial system to maintain independence to enhance quality justice among the Canadians. Although the judiciary is termed as equal to the legislature and executive arms of government, appointment, removal, as well as remuneration of judges, relies upon other branches. The role of office of the Supreme Court, as well as the federal court judges, falls under section 96 of the Constitution Act. The section is at times called section 96 judges. The judges sit in the provincial Supreme Court and court of appeal or in other equivalent courts. Provincial and municipal governments appoint provincial lower court judges among others2. The provincially appointed judges’ deals with matters related to provincial legislation and federal legislation. The constitution act, as well as the federal judges act, explains the basis of removal of magistrates, retirement and remunerati on. Such provisions follow in various provincial enactments although some may vary from province to province. Steven Harper and his conservative party have brought a lot of changes to the appointment processes that have by far changed the initial process. The judicial system has for long experienced many excellent appointments in both the provincial as well as territorial superior courts. The Canadian courts for long have gained respect locally and internationally. The house of commons provides a Standing Committee that oversees the justice and human rights that

Influence of Advertisement on Brand Preference Essay Example for Free

Influence of Advertisement on Brand Preference Essay Vithya Vivekananthan, Faculty of Commerce and Management, Eastern University, Vantharumoolai, Sri Lanka [emailprotected] com ABSTRACT Measuring the influence of Advertisement in Consumer Brand Preference is very essential for every marketer. If advertisement does not create any positive change in consumers’ brand preference, all the resources such as money, time and efforts spent on advertisement will go in vain. Most of the marketers use Advertisement as a tool to attract substantially new customers and to retain the existing customers. This research studies about the â€Å"Influence of Advertisement in Consumer Brand Preference in the Soft Drink Market†, which is one of the most competitive markets in Batticaloa. Every Brand in this market use Advertisement as a major weapon to overcome the fierce Competition. There are numerous Advertisements of different Soft drink brands exposed in Television. But, the main thing here is, the marketer want to identify that, do all these advertisements positively influencing the consumers’ brand preference. In order to study the influence of Advertisement in Consumer Brand Preference, three main variables are considered with appropriate dimensions. They are; Information, Communication and Comprehension. The structured questionnaire was used to collect primary data from 200 respondents. The study found that all three variables indicate high influence of Advertisement in consumer brand preference. Even though it has high influence in overall view, the advertiser wants to consider the indicators, which have low and moderate influence in their future developments of the Advertisements to maintain its position in the market in the long-run. Eventually, this study recommends some actions for improving the influence of Advertisement in consumer brand preference. 2 Introduction The importance of sales on business survival and the connection between customers and sales, it is expedient for organizations to engage in programmes that can influence consumers’ decision to purchase its products. This is where advertising and brand management are relevant. Advertising is a subset of promotion mix which is one of the Four ’P’s in the marketing mix i. e. product, price, place and promotion. As a promotional strategy, advertising serve as a major tool in creating product awareness and condition the mind of a potential consumer to take eventual purchase decision. Marketers’ survival depends on consumer satisfaction. Consumer satisfaction depends on their perception and brand preference of the particular brand. In brand preference, advertising plays a major role. Nearly everyone in the modern world influence to some degree by advertising. Organizations in both public and private sectors have learned that the ability to communicate effectively and efficiently with their target audiences is important to their success. In today’s world, there are a myriad of media outlets-print, radio, and television are competing for consumers’ attention. There are number of creative and attractive advertisements we can see and hear in television, Radio, newspapers and in magazines. Within these media, television advertisements are more attractive and interestingly watched by mass audience. It has often been said that television is the ideal advertising medium where the consumer spends the most attentive time. However, the main thing here is, the marketer want to identify the influence of advertising in consumers brand preference. Nowadays soft drinks have become essential part in lifestyle of the people in the society. There are number of soft drink brands are available in the market. In those brands, some brands are very famous not only in Sri Lanka but also globally. For the research purpose Coca-cola, Fanta, Elephant, and Ole are selected. These are the most preferred brand of the consumers in Sri Lanka. For these brands, different advertisements are available in Television. Some brands’ advertisements are more attractive than others are and some are new creative advertisements. There is no any television advertisement regarding Pepsi during the research period. Therefore, Pepsi was not take into consideration. 3 It is very hard to find people who never consume any brand of soft drink. Everyone in the society prefers a particular brand. We can see frequent advertisements for Soft drinks in Television. Companies spend much on their advertisements to attract more customers. So it is very important to study its’ influence in consumer brand preference. Problem statement There are numerous advertisements in Medias; television, radio, newspapers and magazines but, the important question for a marketer is â€Å"do all these advertisements positively influence the consumers’ brand preference? If advertisement is not create any positive change in consumers’ brand preference, all the resources such as money, time and efforts spent on advertisement will go in vain.

An Analysis of the Movie, Double Impact Essay -- Movie Film Essays

An Analysis of the Movie, Double Impact The movie opens twenty-five years ago in Hong Kong. The parents of two twin babies, Alex and Chad, had borrowed money from Raymond Zhang and Nigel Griffith, two lead smugglers. They needed the money in order to build a tunnel between Hong Kong and the mainland. After the tunnel was built and the money collected, Nigel Griffith and Raymond Zhang had a gang of hit men massacre Alex and Chad's family. Frank Avery, a friend of the family, races into the scene and finds the parents already dead. The two babies are in the back seat with a maid. She takes Alex and flees the scene. Frank sees Chad left behind and takes him and runs. Twenty-five years after these events we find Frank Avery, who is played by Geoffrey Lewis, has raised Chad as his own kid. They own a gym in Los Angelos. Frank has been trying to locate the other brother for the past twenty-five years and has finally found his whereabouts in Hong Kong, working for Raymond Zhang, played by Philip Chan Yan Kin, and Nigel Griffith, pla... An Analysis of the Movie, Double Impact Essay -- Movie Film Essays An Analysis of the Movie, Double Impact The movie opens twenty-five years ago in Hong Kong. The parents of two twin babies, Alex and Chad, had borrowed money from Raymond Zhang and Nigel Griffith, two lead smugglers. They needed the money in order to build a tunnel between Hong Kong and the mainland. After the tunnel was built and the money collected, Nigel Griffith and Raymond Zhang had a gang of hit men massacre Alex and Chad's family. Frank Avery, a friend of the family, races into the scene and finds the parents already dead. The two babies are in the back seat with a maid. She takes Alex and flees the scene. Frank sees Chad left behind and takes him and runs. Twenty-five years after these events we find Frank Avery, who is played by Geoffrey Lewis, has raised Chad as his own kid. They own a gym in Los Angelos. Frank has been trying to locate the other brother for the past twenty-five years and has finally found his whereabouts in Hong Kong, working for Raymond Zhang, played by Philip Chan Yan Kin, and Nigel Griffith, pla...

Employment Tribunal Essay

â€Å"Employment tribunals were established under the Industrial Training Act 1964. They were previously referred to as Industrial Tribunals, but their name was changed by s1 of the Employment Rights (Dispute Resolution) Act 1998, which took effect on 1 August 1998†³(J. Nairns,2011,p. 6). Now, HM Courts & Tribunals Service which is an executive agency of the Ministry of Justice, supervise employment tribunals. Employment tribunals are constituted on the basis of region. In England and Wales, there are 11 regional offices of the Employment Tribunals(ROETs). There is Regional Office in each region which copes with claims from applicants in that geographical area. â€Å"Any appeal from the Employment Tribunal would be heard in the EAT(Employment Appeal Tribunal), from there by the Court of Appeal and then the House of Lords†(J. Nairns,2011,p. 6). There are 9 offices of the Employment Tribunals(OETs) which are subordinating to specific ROETs where hearings occur. Nevertheless, OETs are administered by the relevant ROET under the auspices of the regional Chairman(Dennis Hunt, 2005). The jurisdiction of employment tribunals was not completely statutory until the Employment Tribunals Extension of Jurisdiction Order 1994. â€Å"When an employee is dismissed, she may well have a claim for breach of the contract of employment as well as a claim for unfair dismissal and it seemed absurd that the two claims could not both be brought in the same court. The problem was highlighted when the Wages Act 1986 was passed and apparently provided an avenue for bringing contract claims in rocketed, indicating the need for such a mechanism†(Gwyneth Pitt, 2004, p. 14). That’s why employment tribunals created. The main advantages of setting up employment tribunals are as the following: 1. speed, which minimizes time-wasting for both employees and employers; 2. cost, rather than loser has to pay all the costs, both parties need to pay their own costs; 3. informality, without wearing wigs, an unintimidating atmosphere created to assist individuals to represent themselves better; 4. flexibility, strict rules of precedent are not operated in tribunals which makes it be more flexibly in responding than courts; 5. specialization, tribunal members obtain expertise in areas of related cases, they can offer professional nowledge of varied industries, in this regard, ordinary courts cannot match; 6. relief of congestion in the ordinary courts, the workload of ordinary courts will be very heavy if all the cases of tribunals are transferred; 7. awareness of policy, tribunal members’ expertise illustrates members can understand the policy behind legislation in their own areas, and the wide discretionary power they possess permit them to put it into practice; 8. privacy, individuals may meet in private tribunals under some circumstances, thus their circumstances don’t have to be open to public. C. Elliott & F. Quinn, 2009) â€Å"Employment tribunals are usually composed of three members. They are chaired by a solicitor or barrister of seven years’ standing and then have two lay members, drawn from each side of industry†(Gwyneth Pitt, 2004, p. 13). The employment judge must obtain at least seven years career of being qualified solicitor or barrister. The appointment of the employment judge is made by the Lord Chancellor. The role of employment judge is to make decisions and offer reasons of the decisions after case hearing. They also preside over the hearing and if necessary can advise lay members on points of law and procedure†(J. Nairns, 2011, p. 373). The lay members come from industry, their appointment is made by the Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills. The industrial expertise of lay members can be attribution to help them work better and be more precise in the case hearing of employment tribunal. In this regard, the panel is equivalent to be an â€Å"industrial jury†. At very beginning, caseload of Employment Tribunals was very small. However, it can hear almost every employment law matter since its jurisdiction increased. Before 1994, Employment Tribunals could only hear statutory claims while after the Employment Tribunals Extension of Jurisdiction (England and Wales) Order 1994, Employment Tribunals’ role has drastically changed that they can now hear common law claims(Richard Kinder,1999). But there are some law matters of common law they cannot cope with like matters relating to moral tights and copyright, patents, designs rights, trade marks; breach of restraint of trade covenants; breach of confidence; breach of a contract terms requiring the employer to provide for the employee; personnel injury claims. From this regard, certain employment matters still have to be tackled in the civil courts. Since judges and solicitors don’ t need to wear wigs at employment tribunals, cases needn’t to be open to public under some circumstances and employment tribunals meant to be cheap, speedy and informal, but they are not informal, actually, they are becoming increasingly legalistic. As the complexity and magnitude of employment law keeps increasing, the workload of employment tribunals increases, lawyers are now needed, thus the employment tribunals are no longer as cheap and informal as before. As to informality, anyone going to an employment tribunal expecting a cosy chat can think again, despite the injunction in the regulation that tribunals should seek to avoid formality. In general tribunals follow a procedure which is akin to the procedure of ordinary civil courts, although if either party is unrepresented the tribunal chairperson often takes a more inquisitorial role†(Gwyneth Pitt, 2004, p. 15). Government has launched certain reforms in the procedures of employment tribunals to reduce backlog and weed out weak cases, the reforms are as following: Pre-hearing review, tribunals can award up to ? 0,000 (this figure has increased to ? 20,000 on 6th April 2012) against losing parts, the Employment Act 2002. The Pre-hearing procedure increases costs employees need to pay, which effectively reduce backlog while may dissuade those with genuine claim from bringing a claim since it is may be too expensive for those dismissed employees. The opportunity for tribunals to raise costs to losing side, this will reduce weak cases but also dissuade employees from being brought actions. The Employment Act 2002 also increase the costs people need to pay if they want to bring a claim to employment tribunal. For unfair dismissal cases by the Employment Rights(Dispute Resolution) Act 1998, power of running a statutory arbitration scheme which as an alternative to the employment tribunals was given by ACAS(Gillian Phillips & Karen Scott, 2005). Rather than to an Employment Tribunal hearing, parties in the cases of unfair dismissal now are possible to agree to take their cases to arbitration. â€Å"Since the introduction of SI 2004/753 parties may agree to the appointment by ACAS of an arbitrator who will decide whether the dismissal was fair or unfair. The decision will be binding on the parties, who will not then have recourse to a tribunal hearing†(Andrew C. Bell, 2006, para. 1. 4. 3). It also reduces the workload on the employment tribunals. There are some reforms in the Employment Tribunals under the Employment Tribunals(Constitution and Rules of Procedure) Regulations 2004 (ET Regs 2004). The Employment Tribunals governed the employment tribunals from October 2004; By reg. 8 of the ET Regs 2004, the chairman of an employment tribunal must have at least seven years’ professional career as barrister or solicitor; Under reg. of ET Regs 2004, the prime objective of employment tribunals is changed to handle cases justly instead of intending to offer speed, cheap and informal means to resolve employment disputes; Tribunals get increasing emphasis on case management. Different from the past when cases were often not identified until hearing, almost all the cases are well-prepared and issues are completely well-identified before hearings; The president possesses the right in making practice directions under the reg. 13 of ET Regs 2004(James Holland & Stuart Burnett, 2007). In certain circumstance, a chairman sitting alone can consider the matter of costs. This depends on whether the issue of the costs concerns the Originating Application, or the full hearing. In the former, the Chairman can consider the matter, whilst in the latter, it is normal for the tribunal to consider the question of costs†(Dennis Hunt, 2005, p. 8). â€Å"Rule 8 (Constitution and Rules of Procedure) Regulations 2004 introduces a system of default judgements under which a tribunal chairman may, incertain circumstances, determine a case without a hearing if he or she considers it appropriate to do so. Such a judgement may decide liability alone, or liability and remedy(new rule8(3))†(Dennis Hunt, 2005, p. 9). The government will introduce fees in employment tribunals and employment appeal tribunal approximately from summer 2013. This action illustrates government’s hope that people can pay a fair contribution for the employment tribunals system they are using, or encourage people to choose alternatives to settle employment disputes. The fees vary depends on different circumstances. Employment tribunal can be dated back to its root of 1964’s industrial tribunal. The fundamental principle of this legal system is no fees apply. The forthcoming fees introduction can be a development in certain degree which combines the both sides, both for the claimant employees and the respondent employers. Nevertheless, this action will bring passive impact on employees who are in junior, unskilled, middle-ranking status, especially those without large salaries. Claimant employees will be dissuaded to bring claims to employment tribunals (Personnel Today). The initial objectives of setting employment tribunals are offering speed, cheap, and informal alternatives for claimant employees to settle employment disputes with respondent employers. The workload of employment tribunals is increasing rapidly and with bringing backload and weak cases at the same time. In 06-2005, the total workload of employment tribunals is 201,514(James Holland & Stuart Burnett,2007). In 09-2008, the total workload of employment tribunals is 266,542(Janice Nairns, 2011). From the comparison of these two data, we can directly discover that the total workload increased just a little bit within three years, and the reason of this change is reforms governments brought to employment tribunals which weed out the weak cases and also reduce the backlog of cases. Since lawyers are now needed in employment tribunals, government will introduce fees for this legal system, and pre-hearing is needed before hearing, the employment tribunals are no longer as cheap, quick and informal before. In this regard, the employment tribunals cannot play their roles effectively as they set in their times since the reforms and changes now may dissuade people with legitimate claims from bringing action, especially those people in junior, unskilled, middle-ranking status, without large salaries. David(2012)confirms the argument that over a thousand employees bring claims to Employment Tribunal, and the Employment Tribunal is regarded as the last line for employees as defence to unfairness in workplace. While the reforms and governments’ proposals of reforming Employment Tribunals have changed the situation and increase the burden of those claimant employees. In current situation, the employment tribunals can meet aggrieved employees in certain degrees, if the claimant employees have prepared enough expense and time for bringing actions to their legitimate cases.